A belief that individual actions do make meaningful difference are among the common factors that motivate people to voluntarily reduce their consumption of single-use plastics (SUP), a Griffith University study has discovered.
The study found individuals who strongly identified with environmental protection, received positive social reinforcement, set clear goals, and believed their actions would make a meaningful difference, were significantly more likely to engage in SUP reduction behaviours.
Excessive use of SUP tableware, including items such as plastic takeaway containers, cutlery and straws, continues to contribute to the global waste crisis.
The study aimed to discover the potential barriers and enablers of SUP tableware reduction behaviour.
Co-author of the study and Social Marketing @ Griffith Director Professor Sharyn Rundle-Thiele said while governments around the world were focused on bans and levies, voluntary behaviour change remained an untapped solution to addressing SUP consumption.
“People are increasingly willing to engage in pro-environmental purchase and consumption behaviour, but there is a big gap between what people intend to do –and what they actually do,” Professor Rundle-Thiele said.
“Our research highlighted that motivation alone does not lead to behaviour change.
“Individuals must also have the knowledge, skills and opportunity to act on their intentions.
“Some examples of capability include knowledge of alternatives, the ability to plan ahead, and the development of sustainable habits.
“Opportunity referred to the presence of alternatives, and supportive social norms which included encouragement from social networks and being a part of environments that enabled and reinforced sustainable practices.”
The study applied the COM-B (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation—Behaviour) behavioural model to examine the full spectrum of barriers and enablers that affected an individual’s ability and motivation to reduce SUP consumption.
The COM-B model accounted for 70 per cent of the motivational factors associated with SUP tableware reduction.
The study showed successful SUP reduction interventions needed to go beyond traditional education and policy approaches to incorporate capability and opportunity.
“This research provides a valuable framework for developing targeted interventions that bridge the gap between environmental attitudes and actual behaviour,” Professor Rundle-Thiele said.
“By incorporating behavioural insights and addressing the psychological and environmental conditions that shape consumer behaviour, policymakers, social marketers, and environmental advocates can more effectively promote sustainable practices.”
The study was among the first to offer a nuanced understanding of human behaviour in environmental contexts.
A Phase 1 human clinical trial to treat chronic spinal cord injury, the first of its kind in the world, has commenced to test the efficacy and safety of a revolutionary new treatment using nasal cells.
The Griffith University trial has been three decades in the making and involves taking olfactory ensheathing cells, which are specialised cells involved in our sense of smell, from the nose as they have numerous therapeutic properties for repairing and regenerating nerves.
Professor James St John
Lead researcher Professor James St John, Head of Griffith’s Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research and Principal Researcher at the Institute for Biomedicine and Glycomics, is carrying on the legacy of the late Professor Emeritus Alan Mackay-Sim AM.
“Once the cells have been removed from the patient’s nose, they are then used to create an innovative nerve bridge which is about the size of a very small worm,” Professor St John said.
“The nerve bridge is then implanted into the spine at the site of the injury, offering what we think is the best hope for treating spinal cord injury.
“To help stimulate regeneration, patients will undergo intensive rehabilitation for three months prior to the transplantation and then for eight months after the transplantation.
“While primary assessments are to ensure the therapy is safe, we will also be measuring numerous aspects to assess if there are changes in functional outcomes that are important to people living with spinal cord injury.
“The ability to regain some sense of function, whether it’s regaining independent function of their bladder or bowel, regaining movement in their fingers, or the ability to stand and hug a loved one again can improve quality of life.
“Regaining some form of independence can open the world up to people living with a chronic acquired spinal injury.”
The trial, to be conducted at Gold Coast University Hospital, is a blinded and randomised control study with preclinical research demonstrating the olfactory nerve bridges are effective in repairing spinal cord injury in animal models.
CEO of the Clem Jones Foundation, Peter Johnstone, said the latest milestone illustrated how long-term philanthropic support could foster ground-breaking research with the potential to change lives for the better.
“The Clem Jones Foundation has supported this world-leading project from day one alongside other philanthropic groups and individuals which meant it also attracted state and federal government funding commitments,” Mr Johnstone said.
“All of the funding partners recognise that results from medical research never happen overnight but rely on long-term funding as well as the long-term application of the knowledge, skills, and hard work of the talented team of researchers at Griffith University.”
Founder of the Perry Cross Spinal Research Foundation, Perry Cross AM, who became a ventilated quadriplegic at age 19 from a rugby accident, has dedicated his life to advocating for a cure.
“This clinical trial represents a long-awaited breakthrough that speaks to the enduring strength of those impacted by spinal cord injury and the extraordinary belief of those who support us,” Mr Cross said.
“For too long, individuals living with paralysis have been told that recovery lies beyond the horizon of possibility.
“Today, we challenge that notion with evidence, ambition and above all, hope.
“It is proof that philanthropy, when guided by purpose and vision, can accelerate real change. Every contribution has mattered, and each gesture of support has brought us closer to this point.
“For someone like me, who knows all too well the permanence of spinal cord injury, this trial offers not just the possibility of improved function, but a renewed sense of independence and dignity; qualities that define the human experience.”
Professor St John said: “To have a cell transplantation therapy progressing to clinical trial after only eight years is testament to the benefits of the strategic translational research program the team has used.
“To be able to develop the therapy in Queensland is thanks to the incredible support from our funding partners, in particular the Motor Accident Insurance Commission as the major funder, the Clem Jones Foundation, the Perry Cross Spinal Research Foundation, National Health and Medical Research Council, Medical Research Future Fund, and the dedicated spinal injury community which has been the inspiration and driving force behind the therapy development.”
The trial is funded by the Medical Research Future Fund, Perry Cross Spinal Research Foundation, The Clem Jones Foundation, Queensland Government, Nicola and Andrew Forrest, Brazil Family Foundation, Terry and Rhonda White, and Griffith University.
A new study has investigated hundreds of videos and images taken by the public, tourism operators and scientists to better understand a rarely studied behaviour among whales and dolphins – do they actually “play” together, or is it more of a one-sided relationship?
Led by Griffith University’s Whales & Climate Program lead, Dr Olaf Meynecke, the study analysed instances of baleen whale and dolphin interactions involving 19 species in 199 separate and unrelated interactions, documented by photographs and videos from 17 locations around the world.
Published in Discover Animals, Dr Meynecke said the findings demonstrated a quarter of these interactions can be defined as a mutual interaction.
“And in particular for humpback whales, we found that for one-third of the events the behavioural responses towards the dolphins appear positive. The humpback whales were rolling from side to side, undertaking belly presentation and other behaviours that are associated with courtship or friendly socialising.”
Dr Olaf Meynecke
“Whales also strategically moved slowly in the direction of the dolphins with their head and rostrum.
Bow-riding bottlenose dolphin with humpback whales off the Australian coast. Credit: Roving media
“The vast majority of the observed interactions did not show avoidance behaviour.
“We were in particular interested to document the whales’ reactions and responses toward the dolphins’ as commonly dolphins are described to harass and annoy the whales.”
Co-author and Masters graduate Olivia Crawley said: “When you’re out on the water, you often see whales and dolphins interacting and as a scientist, you can’t help but wonder why.
“Having the opportunity to document these observations and observe some of the behavioural patterns like bow riding by dolphins and close touches was intriguing.
“I hope that this study can serve as a foundation for future studies.”
Within each interaction, the authors noted the species of the whale and dolphin, the date and time of the interaction, the location, the number of animals involved, the age class, and the relative position of the dolphins in relation to the whale´s main body parts (rostrum or the ‘beak’, flank, and fluke or tail).
The most common whale-dolphin interaction involved dolphins swimming near the whale’s rostrum, akin to bow riding, which could indicate an energy-efficient mode of locomotion and a form of one-sided play by dolphins.
In total the documented interactions included 425 baleen whales from six different species, with humpback whales dominating (68%) then grey whales (16%) and fin whales (7%).
An estimated 1570 dolphins were observed, with bottlenose dolphins (51%), common dolphin (17%) and pacific wide-sided dolphins (15%) dominating.
Adults formed the largest number of documented interactions, however a whale calf was present in 44 events, and dolphin calf in 53 events. Both whale and dolphin calves were present in 21 occasions.
A fin whale with bow-riding dolphins off the coast of England. Credit: Dan Abbott
The whale species responded differently to the dolphin behaviour; humpback whales moved their pectoral fin toward the dolphins (172 counts) while grey whales were often rolling (56 counts) and southern right whales displayed pectoral slaps (5 counts out of 10 separate events).
Physical percussive behaviours that could indicate aggressive responses toward dolphins such as tail slaps (18 counts) or head slaps (none) were least observed for humpback whales.
Two videos from suction camera tags on humpback whales also showed bottlenose dolphins following humpback whales not only on the surface but also to the ocean floor where they continued engaging in close approaches including possible touching and social play.
“While social play is cooperative and reciprocal, there is also one-sided play or interaction, with only one participant perceiving the interaction as playful, as seen in cases of teasing or harassment by dolphins during feeding events,” Dr Meynecke said.
“Behavioural studies of marine mammals such as these provide insight into their complex social structures, play a crucial role in enhancing our understanding of marine ecosystems and the interactions among marine species.”
Workplace health programs often fail, and Griffith University research uncovered it is not due to lack of staff interest, but because of entrenched organisational barriers that limit staff participation.
Research Fellow from the Griffith Centre for Work, Organisation and Wellbeing Dr Charlotte Brakenridge.
Researchers investigated the barriers to engagement with critical wellness initiatives in call centres, which are a major global industry and include call operators in insurance and banking, health and abuse hotline workers, and emergency dispatchers.
Lead author from the Centre for Work, Organisation and Wellbeing Dr Charlotte Brakenridge said while wellness programs were available, employees often lacked the time, space, and support required to engage meaningfully.
“Staff need dedicated time and organisational support to participate in wellness initiatives in office-based environments,” Dr Brakenridge said.
Despite strong motivation among workers to adopt healthier behaviours, the research identified persistent barriers including:
Excessive workloads and long hours
Unsupportive or controlling management
Poor job security
Pressure to avoid breaks or sick leave
Inadequate facilities, equipment, or sit-stand desks
Noisy or unsupportive work environments
Low energy and preference to rest after work
These factors contributed to negative health outcomes such as weight gain, depression, musculoskeletal discomfort, and unhealthy coping mechanisms including poor nutrition, physical inactivity, and alcohol use.
The findings highlighted successful health promotion strategies needed to address the broader organisational context and not just individual behaviours.
“A whole-of-workplace approach is essential,” Dr Brakenridge said.
“This includes fostering a supportive culture, active manager involvement, peer encouragement, and allocating time for staff to engage in wellness activities.
“Workplaces should include diverse and engaging communication strategies, such as posters, events, presentations, and social media, rather than relying solely on email.
“Supportive co-workers consistently emerged as a key positive influence which helped staff to manage stress and encouraged participation in health initiatives.”
Arthropods, including insects and spiders, make up the vast majority of animal species on the planet.
Despite their small size they are irreplaceable contributors to the health of natural habitats, as well as vital food sources for birds and other larger animals.
Credit: Adam Sharp
But, arthropods may be declining globally. There is some evidence to support reduced numbers of species in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. In the tropics, however, evidence for arthropod declines has so far been limited.
A recent international collaboration of scientists has attempted to find this missing evidence, with the findings published in Nature.
The team, including Professors Emeriti Roger Kitching and Nigel Stork from Griffith University’s School of the Environment and Science, conducted a whole-of-tropics analysis on tropical forest insects and their relatives and the ecological roles that they perform.
Combining information from over 80 previous studies in tropical forest sites that have never been commercially altered by humans, the team found significant biodiversity loss in multiple types of arthropod, including butterflies, beetles and spiders.
The biodiversity loss matched drops in the amount of live leaf material consumed by arthropods over time, and substantial instability in the amount of dead leaves decomposed by arthropods.
“To find such large declines over many studies is really bad news,” said Dr Adam Sharp, first author and data analyst from Hong Kong University.
“Our results suggest strongly that the immense biodiversity of tropical forest arthropods is immediately threatened. “
Dr Adam Sharp
“Since all of the data we used comes from forest considered ‘untouched’, even the deepest and darkest tropical forests are likely to be heavily impacted.”
The team link climate change to the declines in arthropods and their respective ecological roles. The tropics experience natural but irregular year-to-year variation in climate, driven by an atmospheric phenomenon called the El Niño Southern Oscillation – ENSO. Long-term changes to the ENSO cycle, caused by climate change, are likely behind the observed arthropod declines.
Arthropods can be highly sensitive to ENSO, with different arthropod types coming and going during the opposing El Niño and La Niña stages of the cycle.
While there is considerable difference in effect across the tropics, El Niño conditions are often hot and dry while La Niña conditions are often cooler and wetter.
Credit: Adam Sharp
They should usually strike a balance such that no arthropods ever disappear completely – but the El Niño part of the ENSO cycle is becoming more frequent and more intense due to climate change.
“We believe that changes to El Niño occurrence are causing widespread arthropod declines,” said corresponding author Dr Mike Boyle.
“In these tropical forests that haven’t otherwise been physically modified by humans we can rule out habitat loss, pesticides, pollution and various other threats. In these places El Niño seems to be the prime suspect.”
Indeed, the team found the largest declines in arthropods occurred in those that favour La Niña conditions. If El Niño is becoming detrimental due to climate change, then its occurrence is sure to further chip away at arthropod biodiversity into the future.
“Arthropods are essential components of functioning ecosystems, carrying out vital processes including decomposition, herbivory and pollination,” said University of Hong Kong Associate Professor Louise Ashton.
“We must better understand how nature is shifting and what is happening to arthropods and their ecosystem processes in response to environmental change.
Co-author Professor Roger Kitching from Griffith University said: “The crucial message for Australia is the need to monitor the biodiversity in our rainforests – revisiting previous surveys is the key.”
The international team continue their research at forest sites across Hong Kong and Mainland China, Australia and Malaysia.
Recent findings, made by Griffith University researchers, show that early hominins made a major deep-sea crossing to reach the Indonesian island of Sulawesi much earlier than previously established, based on the discovery of stone tools dating to at least 1.04 million years ago at the Early Pleistocene (or ‘Ice Age’) site of Calio.
Excavations at Calio in southern Sulawesi, Indonesia. Credit: BRIN
A field team led by Hakim excavated a total of seven stone artefacts from the sedimentary layers of a sandstone outcrop in a modern corn field at the southern Sulawesi location.
Professor Adam Brumm.
In the Early Pleistocene, this would have been the site of hominin tool-making and other activities such as hunting, in the vicinity of a river channel.
The Calio artefacts consist of small, sharp-edged fragments of stones (flakes) that the early human tool-makers struck from larger pebbles that had most likely been obtained from nearby riverbeds.
The Griffith-led team used palaeomagnetic dating of the sandstone itself and direct-dating of an excavated pig fossil, to confirm an age of at least 1.04 million years for the artefacts.
Previously, Professor Brumm’s team had revealed evidence for hominin occupation in this archipelago, known as Wallacea, from at least 1.02 million years ago, based on the presence of stone tools at Wolo Sege on the island of Flores, and by around 194 thousand years ago at Talepu on Sulawesi.
The island of Luzon in the Philippines, to the north of Wallacea, had also yielded evidence of hominins from around 700,000 years ago.
“This discovery adds to our understanding of the movement of extinct humans across the Wallace Line, a transitional zone beyond which unique and often quite peculiar animal species evolved in isolation,” Professor Brumm said.
Map of Southeast Asia showing the location of Calio in southern Sulawesi.
“It’s a significant piece of the puzzle, but the Calio site has yet to yield any hominin fossils; so while we now know there were tool-makers on Sulawesi a million years ago, their identity remains a mystery.”
Stone tools dated to over 1.04mya, scale bars are 10mm. Credit: M W Moore
The original discovery of Homo floresiensis (the ‘hobbit’) and subsequent 700,000-year-old fossils of a similar small-bodied hominin on Flores, also led by Professor Brumm’s team, suggested that it could have been Homo erectus that breached the formidable marine barrier between mainland Southeast Asia to inhabit this small Wallacean island, and, over hundreds of thousands of years, underwent island dwarfism.
Professor Brumm said his team’s recent find on Sulawesi has led him to wonder what might have happened to Homo erectus on an island more than 12 times the size of Flores?
“Sulawesi is a wild card – it’s like a mini-continent in itself,” he said.
“If hominins were cut off on this huge and ecologically rich island for a million years, would they have undergone the same evolutionary changes as the Flores hobbits? Or would something totally different have happened?”
A collaborative research trial has demonstrated that direct seeding offers a scalable and cost-effective alternative to traditional tubestock planting for ecological rehabilitation on sand mines in southeast Queensland.
Tubestock refers to small, young plants grown in narrow, tube-shaped containers, often used for landscaping, revegetation, and gardening projects.
The research trial, a collaboration between Southern Pacific Sands, Healthy Land & Water and Griffith University’s Green Research Infrastructure Labs (GIRLS), evaluated the outcomes of a direct seeding trial at Southern Pacific Sands’ operational site near Bribie Island (a sand mine with differing land-use histories).
PhD Candidate Christopher Johnson.
It assessed the viability of direct seeding as a rehabilitation technique under the company’s government-approved Progressive Rehabilitation and Closure Plan (PRCP).
In Queensland, a PRCP is a legislated requirement that compels mining operations to progressively rehabilitate disturbed land, identifying post-mining land uses and rehabilitation milestones to ensure long-term environmental compliance.
Researchers applied a diverse native seed mix – comprising grasses, shrubs, and key koala and glossy black cockatoo food tree species – across two sites with contrasting objectives: a pasture site and a novel native ecosystem site.
Outcomes were measured over a 36-month period against the mine’s own PRCP targets, focusing on native tree density, species richness, and weed suppression.
The native ecosystem site significantly exceeded expectations, achieving more than 5,200 stems per hectare – well above the 600 stems/ha PRCP requirement – alongside strong native diversity and canopy cover.
The pasture site showed moderate success, with outcomes influenced by persistent weed pressure and soil conditions.
Lead researcher Christopher Johnson, a PhD candidate at Griffith University and Senior Environmental Officer at Southern Pacific Sands, said the trial reinforced the importance of tailoring techniques to site conditions.
“Direct seeding isn’t a one-size-fits-all solution,” he said.
Narrow-leaved red gum (Eucalyptus seeana).
“But with early weed control, well-considered species selection, and the right preparation, it can deliver better ecological outcomes at a fraction of the cost.”
Healthy Land and Water’s Mark Waud supported this, noting that “making direct seeding work means getting the recipe right”.
The project revealed direct seeding reduced costs by more than 30 per cent compared with tubestock planting – equating to approximately $97,000 per hectare over three years, compared with more than $150,000 over the same period – while also reducing labour and improving scalability.
As one of the first Queensland-based studies to validate direct seeding under operational mining conditions, the trial had already influenced on-site rehabilitation practices.
Dr Ruby Michael, Founder of GIRLS, said it was important to have regional case studies that opened a wider range of options for the return of native ecosystems to sites.
Its success highlighted the value of collaboration between industry, research institutions, and natural resource management groups in developing practical, evidence-based solutions for on-the-ground project delivery.
A critical water source for vast areas of the Northern Territory is drying at an accelerating rate, according to new findings, with losses clearly visible from space.
The Cambrian Limestone Aquifer (CLA) is a large, interconnected limestone system containing high-quality groundwater that supports numerous Northern Territory rivers, towns, Indigenous communities, pastoral enterprises, and irrigated agriculture.
But the findings, published in a new study led by Griffith University researchers, show the aquifer has experienced significant water loss since 2014, reaching its lowest recorded storage level in 2021 (the end of the study period).
The satellite analysis confirmed changes for the wet (December-March) and relatively dry (June-August) seasons during the 2003–2011 and 2011–2022 periods.
The study draws on two decades of data (2002-2022), including ground-based bore monitoring from the Bureau of Meteorology and remote sensing from multiple satellites.
Among them, NASA’s GRACE satellite – used to track groundwater depletion globally – detects subtle changes in Earth’s gravity, indicating how much water has been lost underground.
“While CLA water levels remained stable from 2002 to 2013, the research shows a steep decline in both groundwater and surface water features – such as springs and wetlands – between 2011 and 2022.
“These declines correlate with increased extraction following the approval of large irrigation licences near Mataranka in 2013, and are concerning given recent development of fracking sites in the Beetaloo Basin, which will also draw upon the aquifer.”
Dr Christopher Ndehedehe
The research team found the aquifer was taking longer to recover from dry periods, with drought recovery times stretching from under five months in 2014 to over 15 months by 2021.
Study authors Professor Matthew Currell and Dr Christopher Ndehedehe.
This drying trend occurred despite fewer severe droughts during the 2011-2022 period than in the previous decade.
“This research used multiple, independent sources of data, and shows that there is a serious risk of over-depletion of one of Australia’s most important aquifer systems if water extraction rates continue to increase”, said co-author, Professor Matthew Currell from the Australian Rivers Institute.
“Our findings raise concerns about the sustainability of groundwater regulation in the Northern Territoryamid rapidly expanding agriculture and gas developments,” Dr Ndehedehe said.
“We need improved water regulation, and our findings highlight how satellite-based monitoring can fill critical data gaps to better inform water management strategies.”
This study follows growing public scrutiny over the future of the CLA, as seen in the ABC Four Corners investigation ‘Water Grab’ (August 2025), which spotlighted risks to rivers, ecosystems, and communities with insights from the Griffith research team.
Griffith Asia Institute (GAI) and the Queensland Art Gallery | Gallery of Modern Art (QAGOMA) marked the 20th anniversary of their landmark public lecture series, Perspectives:Asia, with a special event on Thursday 24 July at the Gallery’s South Bank venue.
Since its inception in 2005 as a joint initiative between GAI and QAGOMA’s Australian Centre of Asia Pacific Art (ACAPA), Perspectives:Asia has provided a vital platform for public engagement on Australia’s relationship with the Asia-Pacific. Over two decades, the series has welcomed a diverse range of voices—artists, academics, diplomats and thought leaders—to explore regional issues through cultural, political and social lenses.
The anniversary event reflected on the series’ legacy while looking to the future. Griffith University Vice Chancellor Professor Carolyn Evans opened the evening by highlighting the important role that institutions like GAI and QAGOMA play in building understanding across cultures.
Professor Caitlin Byrne, Pro Vice Chancellor (Business) and former GAI Director, moderated a dynamic panel discussion featuring four long-time contributors to the series:
Professor Michael Wesley, who founded Perspectives:Asia in 2005 during his tenure as GAI Director
Professor Julianne Schultz AM FAHA, author and founding editor of Griffith Review
Chris Saines CNZM, Director of QAGOMA
Professor Christoph Nedopil, current GAI Director
Each speaker shared reflections on how the series has evolved alongside Australia’s shifting regional engagement. From its early focus on fostering cultural literacy to more recent conversations around geopolitical transformation, the series has remained a space for diverse perspectives and robust public dialogue. Professor Nedopil described the series as:
“A platform that continues to inform, challenge and inspire as the region enters a new era of geopolitical, environmental, and social transformation.”
As Australia navigates new regional challenges, GAI and QAGOMA reaffirmed their commitment to continuing Perspectives:Asia—bringing fresh ideas and critical conversations to the public stage.
Whales are swimming further than previously estimated – up to 20 per cent more – according to a new study published in Ecology.
Co-authored by Griffith University’s Dr Olaf Meynecke, the study reveals traditional methods for calculating animal movement may be drastically underestimating the actual distance travelled, particularly for marine species such as whales.
“For years, we’ve tracked whales using satellite tags, plotting their movements across oceans,” Dr Meynecke said.
“But this research shows we’ve been looking at only part of the picture.”
Dr Olaf Meynecke.
The study, led by a multidisciplinary team of global researchers from the University of Connecticut, Smithsonian Institute and Pontific University of Ecuador, underlines the notion that animal movement isn’t confined to flat maps.
Marine animals such as whales move in three dimensions – across the surface and up and down through the water column.
By integrating geodesy (the science of Earth’s shape) with animal tracking data, the researchers revealed the curvature of the Earth and diving behaviour significantly extend the total distance travelled.
Using satellite data from the Whales & Climate Program’s longest continuous humpback whale track from Ecuador to near Antarctica, the team compared two methods of measuring distance: a standard surface track of approximately 6,658km and a revised, 3D geodesic estimate that factored in average dive depths and speed.
The result was an additional 1,055km or about 16 per cent more distance covered.
“For humpback whales migrating between South American breeding grounds and Antarctic feeding areas, that could mean covering up to 14,000km in a single migration season.”
Dr Olaf Meynecke
“That’s seven times more than the average human travels in a year.
“These findings are more than just fascinating; they have real implications for how we understand the energy demands and ecological pressures on migrating species.
“If animals are expending more energy than previously estimated, we may be underestimating the ecological costs of migration and the impacts of environmental change.”
